本研究主要目的是建立一套具有效度與信度，且可有效應用在臨床語言評估的華語兒童語言樣本分析程序。研究者以台北市三家公立托兒所之3~5歲142位兒童為研究對象，設定學校生活交談對話、小紅帽故事重述、自由遊戲、居家生活交談對話等四個情境收錄兒童語言樣本；採用國際兒童口語語料庫CHILDES（Child Language Data Exchange System）之人工轉錄分析賦碼系統(CHAT)和語料分析程式（CLAN），進行語言樣本的轉錄和分析，針對語意和語法分析的語言發展指標進行探討，以獨立樣本t考驗、Pearson積差相關等方法，進行建構效度和同時效度之分析。
本研究以字為單位的轉錄者間信度為.96，以詞為單位的轉錄者間一致性為.94，受斷詞方式和詞類問題之影響，「字」比「詞」有較好的轉錄者間信度。在華語「字」和「詞」的爭議方面，本研究結果顯示以「字」為單位來計算平均語句長度的信效度略優於「詞」，且兩者相關性極高，因此建議臨床上可使用以「字」為單位來計算平均語句長度。
根據本研究結果，平均語句長度、詞類多樣性、虛詞數量百分比、介連虛詞數量百分比，都有隨年齡增長而增加的趨勢。平均語句字數（MLU-c）、平均語句詞數（MLU-w）、最長五個語句之平均字數（MLU5-c）、最長五個語句之平均詞數（MLU5-w）、詞類多樣性（D）、介連虛詞數量（PC）、校正後相異字比率（CTTR-c）」、「校正後相異詞比率（CTTR-w）等八項指標，可當成鑑別不同年齡之正常發展兒童、同年齡正常發展兒童和發展遲緩兒童的語言發展指標。此外，測量語法和語意能力的個指標之間無顯著相關性，此顯示語意指標和語法指標無法彼此推估能力，因此語言樣本分析必須包含不同向度的語言指標，才能夠更客觀解釋兒童的語言能力。

The purpose of this study was to develop a set of Chinese language sample analysis procedure for clinical language assessment with the reliability and validity. The two major aspects of language sample analysis were semantic and syntax. This study explored the indexes of semantic and syntax development. Participants were one hundred and forty-two children age 3 to 5 years old from three public nurseries in Taipei City. The language sample collection procedure was designed to have four context including conversation (about school and home life respectively), story-retelling, and freeplay. The language samples were transcribed and analyzed by CHILDES (Child Language Data Exchange System)-CHAT(codes for the human analysis of transcripts) and CLAN program. The t-test(independent samples) and Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient were conducted to examine construct validity and concurrent validity.
The results revealed that the interlude reliability in MLU-c(mean length of utterance in character) is better than MLU-w(MLU in word) because of undefined Chinese word segmentation. Besides, MLU-c and MLU-w have extreme high correlations. These findings proposed MLU-c may be a more practical language index on clinical.
According to the results, MLU-c, MLU-w, the mean length of the longest utterances in character (MLU5-c), the mean length of the longest utterances in word (MLU5-w), lexical diversity(D), the quantity of preposition-conjunction function word (PC), and corrected type token ratio (CTTR) are valid indexes of language development. In addition, this study also demonstrated there was no significant relevance between the indexes of semantic and syntax development, that is, these two aspects measure different language abilities. Therefore multiple aspects of language sample analysis are necessary to explain child's language ability objectively and completely.

摘要 ........…………………………………………………………… iii
Abstract ........………………………………………………………… iv
目次 ………………………………………………………………… vi
表次 ………………………………………………………………… viii
圖次 ………………………………………………………………… ix
附錄 ………………………………………………………………… x

第一章 緒論 ………………………………………………………. 1
第一節 研究背景與動機 ……………………………………… 2
第二節 研究目的 ……………………………………………… 5
第三節 待答問題與研究假設 ………………………………… 6
第四節 名詞釋義 ……………………………………………… 10

第二章 文獻探討 …………………………………………………. 14
第一節 語言樣本分析之重要性 ……………………………… 14
第二節 兒童語言樣本收集的信效度研究 …………………… 20
第三節 英語兒童語言樣本的發展指標之探討 ……………… 30
第四節 華語兒童語言樣本的發展指標之探討 ……………… 40
第五節 華語語言學特性之探討 ……………………………… 47

第三章 研究方法 ………………………………………………… 55
第一節 研究流程 ……………………………………………… 55
第二節 研究對象 ……………………………………………… 60
第三節 研究工具 ……………………………………………… 62
第四節 資料處理與分析 ……………………………………… 66

第四章 研究結果分析與討論 …………………………………… 68
第一節 華語兒童語言樣本分析法之信度 ………………… 68
第二節 兒童語言發展指標之建構效度 …………………… 73
第三節 兒童語言發展指標之同時效度 …………………… 87
第四節 華語兒童語言樣本分析法之內容效度 …………… 90
第五節 研究結果之綜合討論 ……………………………… 93

第五章 結論與建議 ……………………………………………… 101
第一節 結論 ………………………………………………… 101
第二節 研究限制 …………………………………………… 106
第三節 建議 ………………………………………………… 108

參考文獻 ………………………………………………………… 112
壹、 中文部分 ……………………………………………… 112
貳、 英文部分 ……………………………………………… 114

壹、 中文部分
中研院平衡語料庫使用手冊（2007）。中央研究院平衡語料庫。台北：中央研究院。
王立非、劉斌 （2003）。國際兒童口語語料庫錄寫系統的賦碼原則
初探。解放軍外國語學院學報， 1，50-54。
史慧中（1988）。3-6歲兒童語言發展特點的調查報告。心理發展與教育，3。北京：北京師範大學兒童心理教育研究所。
曲承熹（1999）。簡易華語語法。台北：五南。
朱曼殊主編 (1991)。兒童語言發展研究。上海：華東師範大學出版社。
何永清（2005）。現代漢語語法新探。台北：台灣商務印書館。
竺家寧（1998）。中國的語言和文字。台北：臺灣書店。
竺家寧（2000）。漢語詞彙學。台北：五南。
吳啟誠（2003）。語障兒童口語能力指標之信度探究。國立嘉義大學國民教育研究所碩士論文，未出版，嘉義。
吳啟誠(譯)（2003）。語言樣本分析—威斯康辛州手冊(原作者：B. J. Leadholm, & J. F. Miller, 1992)。台北：心理。
周國光、王葆華（2001）。兒童句式發展研究和語言習得理論。北京：北京語言文化大學出版社。
林寶貴，錡寶香（2000）。語障學生輔導手冊。教育部特殊教育小組主編。國立台南師範學院 印製
胡裕樹（1992）。現代漢語。台北：新文豐。
香港大學教育學院香港幼兒語言發展研究小組（1997）。香港學前幼兒的語文發展。香港，香港大學。
香港大學教育學院言語及聽覺科學部（1999）。學前兒童口語(粵語)發展的主要過程。香港，香港大學。
范曉（2000）。漢語的句子類型。山西：書海。
張顯達（1998）。平均語句長度在中文的應用。聽語會刊，13，36-48。
黃瑞珍（1999）。不同詞彙測量法對評估書寫語言詞彙廣度之研究。國立政治大學教育心理研究，22，113-144。
黃瑞珍（2003）。語言樣本分析與應用。台北：台北市立師範學院特殊教育學系。
黃瑞珍（2004）。兒童語言樣本分析。台北：中央研究院訪問學人報告。未出版。
黃瑞珍（2006）。標準化兒童語言障礙測驗工具介紹與檢視。台北：台北市立教育大學溝通障礙碩士學位學程。
溫志軍，胡瑰玲（2001）。開發利用世界上最大的兒童語料庫--CHILDES。外語教學與研究， 5，374-377。
廖淑靜（1995）。「語句平均長度」在中文的有效度。輔仁大學語言學系碩士論文，未出版，台北。
靳洪剛（1994）。語言發展心理學。台北市：五南。
劉月華、潘文娛、故韡（2002）。實用現代漢語語法。台北：師大書苑。
葛本儀（2002）。語言學概論。台北：五南。
錢乃榮（2002）。現代漢語概論。台北：師大書苑。
陳幗眉（1995）。幼兒心理學。台北：五南。
锜寶香（2002）。嬰幼兒溝通能力之發展：家長的長期追蹤記錄特。殊教育學報，16，23-64。
謝佳倫（1999）。遺傳演算法應用於中文斷詞之研究。國立中央大學資訊管理系碩士論文，未出版，桃園。





貳、 英文部分

Bernstein, D. K., & Tiegerman-Farber, E. (1997). Language and communication disorders in children (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Botting, N., Conti-Ramsden, G., & Crutchley, A. (1997). Concordance between teacher/therapist opinion and formal language assessment scores in children with language impairment. European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 32, 317–327.
Bornstein, M. H., & Haynes, O. M. (1998). Vocabulary competence in early childhood: measurement, latent construct, and predictive validity. Child Development, 69, 654–671.
Cheng, S. (1988). Beginning negative sentences among Mandarin speaking toddlers : with special reference to the differentiation between “ bu” and “mei you ”. Chinese Journal of Psychology, 30 , 47-63.
Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2000). An assessment battery for identifying language impairments in African American children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 366–379.
Condouris,K., Meyer, H., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2003). The relationship between standardized measures of language and measures of spontaneous speech in children with autism. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology , 12 , 349–358
Dunn, M., Flax, J., Sliwinski, M., & Aram, D. (1996). The use of spontaneous language measures as criteria for identifying children with specific language impairment: An attempt to reconcile clinical and research incongruence. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 643–654.
Evans, J. L., & Craig, H. K.(1992). Language sample collection and analysis: interview compared to freeplay assessment contexts. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 35, 343-353.
Evans, J. L. (1996). SLI subgroups: Interaction between discourse constraints and morphological deficits. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 655–660.
Eisenberg, S. L., Fersko, T. M., & Lundgren, C. (2001). The use of MLU for identifying language impairment in preschool children: A review. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10, 323-342.
Fujiki, M., & Willbrand, M. L. (1982). A comparison of four informal methods of language evaluation. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 13, 42–52.
Gavin, W. J., & Giles, L.(1996). Sample size effects on temporal reliability of language sample measures of preschool children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1258-1262.
Goffman, L., & Leonard, J. (2000). Growth of language skills in preschool children with specific language Impairment: Implications for assessment and intervention. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology , 9 ,151–161.
Hux, K., Morris-Friehe, M., & Sanger, D. D. (1993). Language sampling practices: A survey of nine states. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 24, 84–91.
Hewitt, L. E., Hammer, C. S., Yont, K. M., & Tomblin, J. B. (2005). Language sampling for kindergarten children with and without SLI: mean length of utterance, IPSYN, and NDW. Journal of Communication Disorders, 38, 197–213.
Hegde, M. N., & Maul, C. A. (2006). Language disorders in children-An Evidence-Based Approach to Assessment and Treatment. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Ingram, K., Bunta, F., Ingram, D.(2004). Digital data collection and analysis: application for clinical practice. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools,35, 112-121.
Johnston, J. R., Miller, J. F., Curtiss S., Tallal P.(1993). Conversations with children who are language Impaired: asking questions Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 973-978.
Johnston, J. R. (2001). An alternate MLU calculation: magnitude and variability of effects. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research , 44,156–164.
Kemp, K., & Klee, T. (1997). Clinical speech and language sampling practices: Results of a survey of speech-language pathologists in the United States. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 13, 161–176.
Klee, T., Stokes, S. F., Wong, A. M.-Y., Fletcher, P., & Gavin, W. J. (2004) Utterance length and lexical diversity in Cantonese-speaking children with and without specific language impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 47, 1396-1410.
Loeb, D. F., Kinsler, K., & Bookbinder, L. (2000). Current language sampling practices in preschools. Poster presented at the Annual Convention of the American Speech-Language- Hearing Association, Washington, D.C.
Miller, J. (1981). Assessing language production in children: Experimental
procedures. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Miller, J. F., & Chapman, R. S. (2000). Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT), Version 6.1 (Windows) [Computer software]. Madison, WI: Language Analysis Laboratory, Waisman Center on Mental Retardation and Human Development.
McKee, G., Malvern, D., & Richards, B. (2000). Measuring vocabulary diversity using dedicated software. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 15, 323–337.
Marinellie, S. A.(2004).Complex syntax used by school-age children with specific language impairment (SLI) in child–adult conversation. Journal of Communication Disorders, 37, 517–533
Miller, J. F., & Chapman, R. S. (2004).Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT), (Version 8)〔computer software〕. Madison. WI: Language Analysis Lab.
Miles, S., Chapman, R. & Sindberg, H. (2006). Sampling context affects MLU in the language of adolescents with Down Syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research , 49 , 325–337.
Owens, A. J., & Leonard, L. B. (2002). Lexical diversity in the spontaneous speech of children with specific language impairment: application of D. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45, 927–937.
Paul, R., Tetnowski, J., & Reuler, E. (2007). Communication sampling procedures. Paul, R., & Cascella, P. W. (Eds.) Introduction to Clinical Methods in Communication Disorders. 2nd Ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Rondal, J. A., Ghiotto, M., Bredart, S., & Bachelet, J. F. (1987). Age-relation, reliability, and grammatical validity of measures of utterance length. Journal of Child Language, 14, 433–446.
Rollins, P. R., Snow, C., & Willett, J. (1996). Predictors of MLU: semantic and morphological developments. First Language, 16, 243–259.
Rescorla, L., Roberts, J., & Dahlsgaard, K. (1997). Late talkers at 2: outcome at age 3. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 40, 556–566.
Restropo, M. A. (1998). Identifiers of predominantly spanish speaking children with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 1398–1411.
Robertson, S. B., & Weimer,S. E. (1999). Effects of treatment on linguistic and social skills in toddlers with delayed language development. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research,42, 1234-1248.
Retherford, K. S. (2000). Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts (3rd ed.). USA: Thinking Publications.
Rice, M. L., Redmond, S. M., Hoffman, L. (2006). Mean length of utterance in children with specific language impairment and in younger control children shows concurrent validity and stable and parallel growth trajectories. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49,793–808 .
Scott, C. M. & Windsor, J. (2000). General language performance measures in spoken and written narrative and expository discourse of school-age children with language learning disabilities. Journal of Speech ,Language and Hearing Research,43, 324-339.
Shipley, K. G., & McAfee, J. G. (2004). Assessment in speech-language pathology: A resource manual. 3rd ed. Thomson & Delmar Learning.
Southwood, F., Russell, A. F. (2004). Comparison of conversation, freeplay, and story generation as methods of language sample elicitation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 366-376.
Watkins , R. V., Kelly D. J., Harbers, H. M. (1995). Measuring children's lexical diversity: differentiating typical and impaired language learners . Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 1349-1355.